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Introduction  

In Kenya and other countries, actions driven by negative ethnic perceptions, such as ethnic violence, stem from broader frameworks and narratives shaped by the words of leaders and, more powerfully, by how they engage with ethnic identities. , which in turn and ultimately influence their actions.   

Negative ethnic perceptions persist in many countries due to a failure to address leader- and state-driven actions that worsen divisions between ethnic groups. For example, in Kenya, despite conducting elections in 2022 that received praise for being less rooted in ethnic identity, there continue to be and of extensive ethnic bias in state decisions and institutions. This is despite constitutional provisions seeking to promote ethnic unity and inclusion and frequent appeals against ethnic discrimination by political and other leaders. The key to disrupting these negative cycles is creating more inclusive participatory processes that can result in inclusive actions, change narratives, and sustain positive engagements between ethnicities and with leaders.   

Ethnic Based Violence in Kenya and Causes   

Following the 2007 general鈥痚lections in Kenya, ethnic violence erupted. Raila Odinga, the opposition candidate, had an , but the incumbent candidate, Mwai Kibaki, soon closed the gap and was declared the winner of the election and sworn in less than an hour later. Soon thereafter, protests erupted amid allegations that the election was rigged. Protests became violent and rapidly took on an ethnic dimension. The violence lasted two months, during which time over 1,000 people . The African Union鈥檚 , led by Kofi Annan, convened the two parties in the (KNDR), establishing a peace accord in February 2008 that put an end to the violence. Similar ethnic violence occurred during Kenya鈥檚 first multi-party, post-independence elections in 1992 and again in 1997. 

To investigate post-election violence, the KNDR agreed to form a . The Commission found that certain communities felt marginalized鈥痓y the government due to perceived inequalities in national resource distribution and government positions. Leaders tapped into the feeling of鈥痬arginalization,鈥痺hich was a powder keg鈥�渨aiting to be ignited and to explode,鈥� for their own鈥痯olitical gain. 

 The KNDR also recommended establishment of the (TJRC) to investigate state human rights violations from 1963 to 2008, explain their causes, and recommend prosecution and reparations. The TJRC found that President Kibaki, like his predecessor Moi, replaced public service nominees with members of his community. As a result, people from regions most affected by the violence felt excluded by the Kibaki administration. Both Commissions鈥� reports cite government leaders鈥� actions as a primary cause of ethnic violence. Karuti Kanyinga a of ethnic-based exclusion in favor of the community of the president in power and those supporting him.  

There are indications that ethnicity may be losing its influence on Kenyan politics, as seen in the 2022 general elections when ethnic communities such as the Kikuyu rejected President Uhuru Kenyatta鈥檚 endorsed candidate, an act which . However, scholars such as cast doubt on this trend away from ethnicization, citing historical ethnic allegiances, intergroup prejudice, ethnically rooted clientelism, public dissatisfaction with leadership, economic hardships, and President Ruto鈥檚 2022 campaign, which used the to unite supporters across ethnic lines as key to Ruto鈥檚 electoral success. 

Similarly, in 2024, Gen Z-led protests against the Finance Bill demonstrated among young Kenyans. Unlike previous protests, these were organic and even spread to perceived strongholds of the incumbent party. Yet in response, suspected government agents framed the protests as a threat to property and peace. In some areas, they mobilized to stop the protests and , demonstrating how quickly politicians turned to ethnic affiliations to control dissent. 

These events indicate that Kenyans can transcend ethnic divisions, yet politicians often exploit ethnic fears to maintain control. The recent impeachment of Kenya鈥檚 Deputy President, tied to allegations of , further reflects how ethnicity continues to shape political discourse. While there seems to be a clear movement against ethnic mobilization, its enduring influence in political strategy remains evident, particularly given the absence of consistent government policies against ethnic discrimination.  

Governments can foster healthy ethnic relations by building mutual trust with citizens, creating enduring political identities that... strengthen social cohesiveness.

State Action, Narratives, and Ethnic Cohesion 

Based on the findings of the Waki Commission and the TJRC reports, the actions of a state can set a precedent for the formation of social norms and narratives that shape the collective consciousness of its citizens. Scholars such as Yuval Noah Harari that humans think and cooperate around stories, and these narratives influence how they perceive or understand the world. He deems people鈥檚 ability to create stories, believe them, and cooperate around them to be the biggest innovation of humans. 

argues that institutional perceptions of ethnicity, reflected in state policies, have a greater impact on societal divisions than interethnic relations themselves. Also, gives an example of Yugoslavia, where failure to democratize and address economic and political differences, in favor of decentralization, resulted in cultural polarization and institutionalization of ethnic identity, which elites used for political gain. 

Further, argues that ethnicity is a key building block to accessing national power in the age of nationalism as individuals pay more attention to their own ethnic background and that of their rulers. He further argues that citizens will not embrace the idea of a nation as a community of trust and solidarity if it doesn鈥檛 involve beneficial exchange relationships with the state. This implies that the policies of state institutions primarily link to strong national attachment. 

Going Forward 

In disrupting negative cycles of ethnic discrimination, states play a pivotal role in shaping positive ethnic relations. As highlights, modern nation-states are identity-driven, where ethnic identity, often seen as apolitical, becomes a powerful tool for mobilization and legitimization of political authority. Governments, as suggests, can foster healthy ethnic relations by building mutual trust with citizens, creating enduring political identities that mirror and institutionalize the underlying exchange networks, strengthening social cohesiveness. 

Also, state policies and actions should not institutionalize rigid divisions (excessively affirming or denying cultural distinctions), observes. Instead, they should promote flexible and equitable recognition of cultural diversity, acknowledging identity without perpetuating exclusion. States can foster inclusive actions, shift damaging narratives, and promote positive ethnic engagement to build a more unified society.